Friday, May 31, 2019

The History of Tattoos Essay -- Body Art Papers

A tattoo is a durable mark or design made on the skin by a process of pricking and ingraining an indelible pigment into the punctures or by raising scars. This is the definition however, to many a tattoo has more of an abstract, personal meaning. stains symbolize individuality, experiences, status, religion, and dodge. They come in many shapes, sizes, colors, designs, and styles. The history behind the tattoo is on the button as interest as the tattoo itself. Whether flaunted or hidden, sought as art or bought out of a whim, the tattoo has left its mark on generation aft(prenominal) generation (Krakow). The purpose of tattooing varies from culture to culture, person to person, and its place on the time line. The essay will examine the following eras BC and tribal, twentieth century, and modern.It is noted that tattooing (a Tahitian word meaning to mark something) has existed since 12,000 years BC. As noted in A Brief memorial of Tattoos, women in Borneo tattooed their sym bols on their arm indicating their particular skill. If a woman wore a symbol indicating she was a skilled weaver, her status as prime marriageable material was increased. In tribes, tattoos around the wrist and fingers were believed to ward extraneous illness and bad spirits. In recorded history, the earliest tattoos can be found in Egypt during the time of the erection of the great pyramids. As the Egyptians expanded their empire, the art of tattooing spread along with it. The civilizations of Crete, Greece, Persia, and Arabia picked up and expanded the art form (A Brief report of Tattoos). The Greeks used tattooing for communication among spies by identifying them and viewing their rank. Romans marked criminals and slaves, a practice still carried on today.Arou... ...on, Michael. Tattooing and Civilizing Processes Body Modification as Self-Control. La Revue Canadienne de Sociologie et dAnthropologie 41 (May 2004) 125-146Demello, Margo. Bodies of Inscription A Cultural Histo ry of the Modern Tattoo Community. Durham Duke University Press, 2000.Garcia, Tomas (Keepsake Tattoo). Personal interview. 10 Nov. 2014Hawkes, Daina, Charlene Senn, and Chantal Thorn. Factors That Influence Attitudes toward Women with Tattoos. Sex Roles A Journal of Research 50 (May 2012) 125-146Krakow, Amy. Total Tattoo Book. New York Warner Books, Inc., 1994. Sace, Paul. History of Tattoo. Tattoo.co.uk. 15 November 2014 Steward, Samuel. unskilled Boys and Tough Tattoos A Social History of the Tattoo with Gangs, Sailors, and Street-Corner Punks, 1950-1965. Portland Harrington Park Press, 1990. The History of Tattoos Essay -- Body Art Papers A tattoo is a permanent mark or design made on the skin by a process of pricking and ingraining an indelible pigment into the punctures or by raising scars. This is the definition however, to many a tattoo has more of an abstract, personal meaning. Tattoos symbolize individuality, experiences, status, religion, and art. They come in many shapes, sizes, colors, designs, and styles. The history behind the tattoo is just as fascinating as the tattoo itself. Whether flaunted or hidden, sought as art or bought out of a whim, the tattoo has left its mark on generation after generation (Krakow). The purpose of tattooing varies from culture to culture, person to person, and its place on the time line. The essay will examine the following eras BC and tribal, 20th century, and modern.It is noted that tattooing (a Tahitian word meaning to mark something) has existed since 12,000 years BC. As noted in A Brief History of Tattoos, women in Borneo tattooed their symbols on their forearm indicating their particular skill. If a woman wore a symbol indicating she was a skilled weaver, her status as prime marriageable material was increased. In tribes, tattoos around the wrist and fingers were believed to ward away illness and bad spirits. In recorded history, the earliest tattoos can be found in Egypt during the time of the erection of the great pyramids. As the Egyptians expanded their empire, the art of tattooing spread along with it. The civilizations of Crete, Greece, Persia, and Arabia picked up and expanded the art form (A Brief History of Tattoos). The Greeks used tattooing for communication among spies by identifying them and showing their rank. Romans marked criminals and slaves, a practice still carried on today.Arou... ...on, Michael. Tattooing and Civilizing Processes Body Modification as Self-Control. La Revue Canadienne de Sociologie et dAnthropologie 41 (May 2004) 125-146Demello, Margo. Bodies of Inscription A Cultural History of the Modern Tattoo Community. Durham Duke University Press, 2000.Garcia, Tomas (Keepsake Tattoo). Personal interview. 10 Nov. 2014Hawkes, Daina, Charlene Senn, and Chantal Thorn. Factors That Influence Attitudes toward Women with Tattoos. Sex Roles A Journal of Research 50 (May 2012) 125-146Krakow, Amy. Total Tattoo Book. New York Warner Books, Inc., 1994. Sace, Paul. History of Tattoo. Tattoo.co.uk. 15 November 2014 Steward, Samuel. Bad Boys and Tough Tattoos A Social History of the Tattoo with Gangs, Sailors, and Street-Corner Punks, 1950-1965. Portland Harrington Park Press, 1990.

Thursday, May 30, 2019

Outsourcing in Intercollegiate Athletics Essay -- Sports, Athletes, FB

Division I intercollegiate athletic departments, especially those that are home to football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) teams, increasingly resemble front offices of professional sport organizations in respect to their mission and business trading operations. With huge operating budgets, state-of-the-art facilities, initiatory athletes, and multinational corporate sponsors, these sport businesses strive to produce winning teams and profitable events every season. The outsourcing of marketing operations and rights is common practice in American college play today. According to Li and Burden (2002), more than one half of all NCAA Division I-A athletic programs have outsourced some or all of their marketing operations and rights to a growing number of nationally prominent outsourcing agencies. Among the operations commonly outsourced are the production of radio game broadcasts, production of radio call-in shows, coaches boob tube shows, sales of media and venue advertising, sales of offi cial sponsorship rights to corporations, and production and management of Internet websites, etc. (Li & Burden, 2002).Outsourcing simply means acquiring services from an external organization instead of using internal resources (Butler, 2000). By using outsourced resources, organizations can gain a competitive advantage by utilizing contingent staff to accomplish strategic goals without incur the fixed overhead. By focusing on the leading edge and highly specialized skill sets, outsourcing providers can often offer higher quality services, or at a lower price than the client organization. Typical reasons for outsourcing go beyond simple contingent staffing. Outsourcing providers are able to maintain economies of scale with regard to specialization (... ... bring the anticipated benefits, and in some instances can be a risky proposition (Chin, 2003). Villcocks and Lacity (1998) stated that among the possible disadvantages are the potential disadvantage of control over critical fun ctions such as timeliness and quality of service, difficulty in monitoring vendor performance, difficulty in explaining the business take to vendors, the potential for loss of company secrets as well as intellectual property, and the high cost of outsourcing contracts. Schools also risk developing a dependency on outside agencies, lowering employee morale, loss of development skills for employees, and having to face the prospect of managing relationships that go wrong (Kakabadse & Kakabadse, 2000 Hayes, 2001). By outsourcing, not only do schools lose some of the face-to-face touch in servicing their employees but their clients as well (Rombel, 2002).

Wednesday, May 29, 2019

Defective Senses in Eliots The Cocktail Party Essay -- Eliot The Cock

Defective Senses in Eliots The Cocktail Party T.S. Eliots play The Cocktail Party, among all its shopworn or peculiar occurrences, is laced with images of defective senses and perception, particularly of sight. The muddle of reality and illusion confounds the main characters, and their attempts to escape drive the plot. Within five lines of the plays beginning we be confronted with defective senses You booknt been listening, (p. 9) complains Alex to the confused Julia when she asks about the tigers in his story. Julia exhibits another confused faculty, that of taste at first she claims Whats that? Potato crisps? No, I simply cant endure them, (p. 15), but afterwards says The potato crisps were really excellent (p. 21). Soon she adds sight to the list I must have left my glasses here, / And I simply cant see a thing without them.... / Im afraid I dont guess the colour, / But Id know them, because one lens is missing (p. 33). Even with her glasses, Julias sight will be impaired. And the glasses gimmick out to have been in her handbag all along. Yet Julias glasses, though often lost, through their very existence allow her to see better. The spectacles whitethorn indeed be a symbol for the plays theme of blindness, but for Julia they provide an excuse to see more -- to spy on her companions, as she admits when she says Left anything? Oh, you look upon my spectacles. / No, theyre here. Besides, theyre no use to me. / Im not coming back again this evening (p. 86). The other characters of Eliots play all exhibit their own failings of perception. Alex finds no mangoes or dress up powder in Edwards kitchen, only eggs -- no exotic or intense tastes, only the bland and prosaic. Alex says of his egg concoction that ... ...cent obliviousness may remember the vision they have had (p. 139) -- but is vision here an apparition or a way of seeing? Do those who retreat from Celias discovery abandon a dream, or an entire sense? Reilly claims the retreat to normal life I could describe in familiar terms / Because you have seen it, as we all have seen it (p. 141), but, if Celia presses on, the destination cannot be described.... You will journey blind (p. 141) -- our normal senses fail us, for we need some higher perception. An illusion or mirage is a failure of vision, so what of vision and mortal existence, whose illusion Celia has pierced? Such higher senses, perhaps, belong to the Guardians of Eliots half-hidden mythos. True sight may be granted only through get off on the way of illumination (p. 147). Works CitedEliot, T.S.,The Cocktail Party, Faber and Faber, 1950.

An Analysis of Ode to the West Wind Essay -- Ode to the West Wind Essa

An Analysis of Ode to the West Wind Shelleys Ode to the West Wind appears more complex at first than it really is because the rime is structured much like a long, complex sentence in which the main clause does not appear until the last of five quadteen key sections. The poems main nous is held in suspension for 56 lines before the reader sees exactly what Shelley is saying to the wolfram wind, and why hes saying it. In the first four sections Shelley addresses the west wind in three different ways, each one evoking the winds power and beauty. And each section ends with Shelley asking the West Wind to hear, oh hear The readers queerness is therefore both aroused and suspended, because we know the west wind is supposed to hear something, but we arent told what the wind is suposed to hear or is supposed to do. The first stanza develops the idea of the west winds effect on the autumn leaves. The associations we automatically make with autumn&emdashthe end of the year, the death of the years life, the onset of winter&emdashare important, but just as important are other life-giving aspects of the winds power. Shelley tells us that the wind not only blows the Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red,/ Pestilence-stricken multitudes (4, 5) of autumn leaves, but also Chariotest to their dark and wintry cut/ The wingd seeds (6, 7) which will lie dormant through come in the winter until the spring breezes&emdash Thine azure sister of the spring (9)&emdashblow over the landscape to excite the life in them. The west wind drives dead leaves, but also scatters the seeds that will later give the world new life. This life-giving aspect of the west wind seems significant, but the reader cannot quite see yet why Shel... ...he minds of his readers. But the readers are hard to reach, unresponsive. It can seem to a poet struggling for an audience, as Shelley did, that winter was coming. It took a lot of faith to believe that spring would follow. The west wind is a revivi fying force, something that can (metaphorically if not literally) drive his poetry forward to a new birth in whatever spring lies ahead If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? (70) It is the poets plea for a metempsychosis of energy. We dont know for certain that the poets energy has been sapped by the struggle to make his voice heard, but we know for much of Shelleys career he did struggle with the depressing smack that no one was reading him. In any event, this powerful natural force becomes for Shelley a symbol of a power that can drive out the years death, his deep depression, and plant the seeds for a rebirth.

Tuesday, May 28, 2019

The Importance of an Ant :: Personal Narrative Ants Essays Insects

The Importance of an Ant I gaze carefully. My little chromatic friend scrambles across my keyboard. Amazing, all those limbs and joints bending and stretching in a rhythmic fluidity, tiny feelers waving excitedly. He approaches a friend, and they tap each early(a) in friendly camradrie, perhaps even love. He waves in understanding and he is off again, this time swiftly scampering toward the Collegiate Coupon book academic session on my desk. He surges upwards a few millimeters and slips into the crack between the pages. Okay. So my desk isnt exactly Walden Pond. The last time I saw leaves reassign color in here was when my plant slip byd last year. And there certainly are no long lines of wisdom-seekers at my door searching for inspiration. But the ants taket care. They simply go about their business, whatever it may be. I used to think their existence was pointless. Now I know it is. They spend their lives migrating from the radiator to my electroni c computer and back. I have no idea what they could possibly eat in my room, unless they somehow disc everywhereed how to eat through the canned kidney beans or the dried alimentary paste stored under my bed. Even their movements have no purpose. I watch in stupefaction as they turn around at least ten measure while traveling a mere six inches. Maybe the most pitiful thing is that the ants have no individual identity. Oh, that ant The red unrivalled with the three body segments and the six legs. The one that likes to scurry. Why didnt you say so? Have you ever seen an ant smile? Have you swapped stories with an ant over a warm cup of cocoa? Do the ants that live by the Great Pyramids or by the Taj Mahal appreciate these wondrous monuments? Do they feel bounty for the victims at the World Trade Center? No. My little friends just continue to walk around aimlessly. They are born in obscurity and they die in obscurity. Unlike ants, humanity has achieved gr eatness. We marvel at the intellect of Leonardo da Vinci or the musical genius of Beethoven.

The Importance of an Ant :: Personal Narrative Ants Essays Insects

The Importance of an Ant I gaze carefully. My little red friend scrambles across my keyboard. Amazing, all those limbs and joints crease and stretching in a rhythmic fluidity, tiny feelers waving excitedly. He approaches a friend, and they tap each other in friendly camradrie, perhaps purge love. He waves in understanding and he is off again, this time swiftly scampering toward the Collegiate Coupon book sitting on my desk. He surges upwards a few millimeters and slips into the crack between the pages. Okay. So my desk isnt exactly Walden Pond. The last time I saw leaves change color in here was when my ground died last year. And there certainly are no long lines of wisdom-seekers at my door searching for inspiration. But the ants dont care. They simply go roughly their business, whatever it may be. I used to think their existence was pointless. Now I know it is. They spend their lives migrating from the radiator to my computer and back. I have no top ic what they could possibly eat in my room, unless they somehow discovered how to eat through the canned kidney beans or the dried pasta stored under my bed. Even their movements have no purpose. I watch in stupefaction as they turn around at least ten times while traveling a untarnished six inches. Maybe the most pitiful thing is that the ants have no individual identity. Oh, that ant The red one with the three body segments and the six legs. The one that likes to scurry. Why didnt you say so? Have you ever seen an ant smile? Have you swapped stories with an ant over a warm cup of umber? Do the ants that live by the Great Pyramids or by the Taj Mahal appreciate these wondrous monuments? Do they feel sympathy for the victims at the World Trade kernel? No. My little friends just continue to walk around aimlessly. They are born in obscurity and they die in obscurity. Unlike ants, humanity has achieved greatness. We admiration at the intellect of Leonard o da Vinci or the musical genius of Beethoven.

Monday, May 27, 2019

Examine the importance of Act III, Scene V Essay

Examine the importance of Act III, Scene V. How would you direct the mount in order to mark your interpretation? Romeo and Juliet is a tomboy of bash and tragedy. It is a great play if directed properly and is easy for people to understand. This is why I am create verbally this essay on how I would direct bingle of the most important scenes, Act III, Scene V. I leave explain the significance of this scene and how I would hire across its meaning. To understand this scene you need to know a little to the highest degree life of people in the 16th Century for one thing the relationship between children and their parents was actually different especially amongst the rich.The catch of the family expected everyone to do what he said even if they disagreed. Also mothers didnt commonly know their children personally as they hired nurses to take care of them 24/7 and even with babies they hired a wet-nurse, which means the nurse had usually beneficial had a child and would breast feed the familys child. The mother and father had very little to do with their children. Even metregh they didnt know their children they dormant arranged their marriages The children had no say in the matter. A rich family would usually set up a marriage with another wealthy family.It was socially unacceptable for a rich person to marry a poor person. Once married the wife was expected to do whatever her husband said and never answer back. If she did the husband would usually start out angry and some sentences physical. As well as thinking about the 16th Century behaviour I need to think about the relevance to a modern audience. I think a modern audience would relate to all the love and gentleness in this scene. They would see the love Juliet has for Romeo and feel sorry for her because her father is forcing her to marry someone else.They leave alone see the pain and suffering she is going through to get her father to cancel the wedding but he gets angry because they should do what he says and never answer back. The important thing when trying to direct the scene is to emphasise the part the modern audience would relate to. I would do this by making the scene very dramatic and make the actor playing Capulet push Juliet around as well as speaking very loudly, maybe even shouting. I would as well as have the actress playing Juliet cry and whimper, get down on her knees and make it look same(p) she is begging.The other characters, dame Capulet and the value would be trying to hold back Capulet, but would cower forward when he speaks to them. This should show the audience that Juliet is desperate and ordain demonstrate how aggressive Capulet can be. As well as thinking about the historical mise en scene and the contemporary relevance we need to consider the character development. In this scene we find things out about the Capulet family we never knew before. The characters seem to change, for example Juliet starts the scene very happy as she has b esides that night consummated her marriage to Romeo.This happiness is shown when she says, Nightly she sings on yon pomegranate tree. Believe me love it was the nightingale. This shows that she is happy and universe romantic. As the scene continues she changes from being happy to suicidal because she is being forced to marry Parris. If all else fail, myself have power to die. This means if she cannot delay the marriage she will kill herself. Another character that changes is the Nurse, as in the beginning of the scene she helps Juliet hide Romeo when Lady Capulet walked in.She said, Your lady mother is coming to your chamber. This shows the nurse wants to help and gives Romeo time to escape through the window. The Nurse does try and stick up for Juliet against Capulet but backs down when he shouts at her. Right at the end of the scene the Nurse suddenly changes and says, I think it best you married with the county. The Nurse has now decided not to back Romeo and Juliets love an d told Juliet to marry Parris and forget about Romeo. She does this because she realises that Juliet has no alternative.We also learn things about the characters. We learn that Capulet has a very short fuse and gets very angry as he expects his family to do whatever he says. He was outraged that Juliet answered back by saying she did not want to marry Parris. Hang thee young baggage, disobedient wretch This proves how aggressive Capulet gets. Also, Capulet and Lady Capulets marriage is shown in a different light as we see that Lady Capulet doesnt stand up against her husband and does what he says. hither comes your father, tell him so yourself, and see how he will take it at your hands. This illustrates that she will not speak against her husband and advises Juliet to tell him herself. on the whole this is showing that Capulet runs the relationship. We also find out that Romeo and Juliets relationship is very immature as they keep changing their minds about important things, for e xample Therefore stay get, thou needst not to be gone. This proves their immaturity and that they fag outt understand the consequences of their actions. This scene is a turning point in the play as Juliet is agitated because she is being forced to marry Parris and feels everyone has abandoned her.She believes the only way out is to take her own life, so she turns to the Friar for help. This is significant because the Friar is the one who gives her the dormancy potion and tells her to take it the night before her marriage to Parris. Taking the sleeping potion eventually leads to the death of Romeo and Juliet. I think the end isnt quite inevitable because you dont know that Romeo wouldnt get the message from Friar Lawrence and think that Juliet is dead, then take the poison when he sees her in the tomb.If everything went to plan, Romeo would have known she was just in a deep sleep and then live together outside the walls of Verona. However, the way this scene ends and some of the l anguage in this scene makes a tragic end more likely. There is a lot said in this scene that would suggest the play would end in tragedy. As Juliet is told she will marry Parris, this complicates everything for Juliet as she already has a husband. It makes her feel suicidal because Romeo has been banished and now she has to marry Parris.On top of all that her mother and Nurse abandon her. verbalise not to me, for Ill not speak a word. Do as though wilt, for I have done with thee. This makes us believe something tragic will happen soon. We also believe that it will end in tragedy because of the way the play has been structured. The play starts with the prologue, which says, The fearful passage of their death marked love This states that it will end tragically. Juliet says, Methinks I see thee now though art so low, as one dead in the bottom of a tomb. The dickens lovers separate after saying things like this, which suggests they will never see each other again. This all points to the same thing, a tragic end. This also changes the vestige of the play because in the scene before, the mood was very loving and happy as Romeo and Juliet got married. This mood stayed at the beginning of this scene. Look love, what envious streaks do roll the severing clouds I yonder east. This shows Romeo being romantic to the women he loves. The romance is also shown in the structure of the sentences by iambic pentameter.It makes the sentences flow and sound poetic. All this shows love and happiness. Then when Juliets mother enters the mood changes from happy and loving to despair and sorrow. Juliets starts to assign with her mother but she will not listen. When her father enters the mood becomes very dramatic, as Capulet was being very aggressive. This is shown by harsh, brutal language, Or I will drag thee on a hurdle thither. taboo you green sickness carrion. This shows his anger and aggression. The rhythm has also changed, it is now very sharp and snappy to show the a nger he has towards her.We also see Juliet appeal to her father, Good father, I beseech you on my knees, hear me with patience, but to speak a word. She pleads and pleads. She is worried and full of despair. At the end she talks of killing herself, this is how much(prenominal) the mood has changed. Shakespeare has presented several forms of love in this scene and other themes, like fate. The forms of love presented in this scene are young love, which Romeo and Juliet have for each other. This miscellanea of love has blinded them and all they think about is each other. They dont think about their actions.Also we are shown the love between Juliet and the Nurse, which is like a mother and daughter love. The Nurse helps Juliet and tries to give the best advice she can. I think Shakespeare wants the audience to conclude that love is strong and that people should fight for love. He may also want them to realise how some families can disown their children just because they love, in the ir eyes, the wrong person. The other theme, fate is an important part, as if it was meant to be they would be fine and nothing would go wrong but things go terribly wrong for Romeo and Juliet.So it seems fate is against them or fate has already mold their deaths. If I was directing the production of Romeo and Juliet I would instruct the actors to play their parts dramatically and over state things of importance e. g. I would make the actors playing Romeo and Juliet be over affectionate to each other at the beginning of this scene. I would tell the audience about the 16th Century life and behaviour, so they would be able to understand the background better. I would explain that the father expected everyone to do what he said.Also I would explain about the wet-nurse and the constipate between her and Juliet. I would do this by including it in the programme or through a narrator. In order to get a good result from the audience I would have to highlight the things they can relate to. I would ask the actress who played Juliet to emphasise her despair by getting on her knees to plead with her father. Also I would make Capulet shout and push Juliet around ensuring that the audience would feel sorry for her. This will demonstrate how angry Capulet gets and that Juliet is really upset because she doesnt want to marry Parris.To make sure they know the mother wont stick up for Juliet I would make the actress hide behind Capulet. For the Nurse, I would get her to stop Capulet from hitting Juliet, to show she tried to help, but he will push her away. I would also make them emphasise the parts, which indicate the play will end in tragedy by speaking louder. Act III, Scene V is a particularly important scene because the mood drastically changes from happiness to despair. This is because she is being forced to marry Parris and everyone abandons her. All this shows the audience that there is going to be a tragic end to the play.

Sunday, May 26, 2019

High School Sports Importance

High School Sports Most high schools have at least four sports they offer to their students. In many districts, there must be an equal amount of sports for boys and girls. Some even have co-ed clear clubs. High school sports have been a vital part of the high school curriculum for many years. For years the school districts have realized the enormousness of sports. However, not all pargonnts fully realize the importance. Some children are not even allowed to move in school sports, because of the cost, the time commitment, or the possibility of injury.The law is that high school sports are more than just fun. They are great tools to helpstudents learn round life. They can teach students who are involved many things. Teamwork, cooperation, and leading are several things students can learn from school sports. They can take these things into their everyday lives as swell up. When they build confidence on the sporting field, they are as well as building confidence against the world . They will be able to work well with others in all other areas of life as well. High school sports are also the perfect way to keep teens away from drugs and other dangerous behaviors.Coaches are great role models that can often encourage players to be well behaved. Some schools even have limits on GPAs for their athletes. If a student athletes grades fall below a certain point, they cannot play. Students who love sports will do anything to play, including study more. They will also be less likely to try drugs or break the law in any other manner. So, allow your children to participate in school sports. Get involved and make friends with the parents of the other students as well. The whole family can have a great time and learn about sports together

Saturday, May 25, 2019

Backstroke Swimming

go swim the complete guide to getting your stroke stark(a), along with faults their causes and how to move backstroke/ launching Swimming backstroke is the third fastest stroke competitively, originated from an old english style of travelming backstrokeand has developed over the years and has evolved into an extrapolatenating and more hard-hitting subdivisional body process. This action givesthe backstroke less resistance with a continuous actuation.The speed of the backstroke is limited by the restrictiverange of movement of the shoulders as hearty as the power/inability to use the power in the chest muscles to thebest desired import by the err of the body which go forth be hold forthed in more situation in the chapter more or less the upsweepof the fortify. When swimming backstroke it is usually developed from a simple back paddle just kicking outgrowths on the back, once this come acrossd and so the backstroke swimmer brook undertake to develop the accoute rments as long as the streamlined body arrangement is supported.Swimming backstroke can be a first choice of stroke for the beginner because it free from the body of water and does not reallyrequire a breathing imitate so there are bitty or no difficulties. The only problem can occur is that some swimmersdo not like lying on their back due to fear of the water. Swimming backstroke/ body position When swimming backstroke the body should be in a flat and horizontal position (supine). The body should as well as be ina streamlined position. The aim should be relaxed, with the water should be crossing the ears care steady andin line with the body.The eyes should be looking upwards and backwards keeping the chin close to the chest. Keep your shoulders just below the surface of the water but they exit only become visible as your body rollsand your spikes recover. Your hip to(predicate)s are the lowest part of the body when swimming the backstroke. The practice ofletting the less able swimmers hips sink should be discouraged if you are teaching your child or yourself to swim backstroke Keep your microscope stages and toes close the surface with your toes breaking the surface of the water. Your body give roll on itslongitudinal axis, you can roll up to about 60 degrees from the horizontal.This roll helps to assist so thatyou can place your spend in the best catch position so that you can have an stiff underwater encircle action which assists the over water tree branch recovery. The only part of the body not involved in this body roll is the head this should be perfectly still when swimming backstroke. Swimming backstroke/ leg action When you swim backstroke you will need a good, strong and streamlined legs kick. The leg kick in backstroke is mainlyused for balance, it is not very likely that the leg kick will provide much propulsion.If you were a good leg kicker then you may get a diminished propulsion maybe 1-5 percent which could be used when the fortification are not intheir propulsive phase. When wholenessness arm is above the head ready for entry and the other is by the side just finishedits pull. You must remember that the although the legs do not contribute to propulsion they are still importantfor a good body position as well as balance for your strong move actions made by your arms which is made outside the line of the body which will in effect will cause lateral deviation. So a good leg action willminimize lateral deviation (moving from side to side).Although the kicks are described as an upbeat and downbeat it is important that the kick does not necessarily take place in the straight plane. Your hips move side to side along with the upper body as it rolls so the path of thekick is influenced at the time of the upbeat and downbeat. When swimming backstroke the legs action is alternating as well as continuous. Your legs will stay close togetherand the movement of each of your legs initiates from the hip and is ob served as an upbeat and downbeat. Swimming backstroke/ Downbeat (recovery) Your leg will begin the downbeat close to the surface of the water and the leg is almost straight.When you begin thedownbeat your hip will excite downwards and then will be followed by your upper leg your lower leg and your foot. The downbeat of each of your legs is called the recovery phase so this movement you will find should be relaxedand through with(p) without very much effort. When you get to the end of the downbeat that will be the lowest guide on and outside of your body range. The depth of this all depend on the coat of your limbs. As a guide the leg will be at a point where the leg can be fully extended with your toes pointed. It will be apparent to the backstrokeswimmer that the flexibility of the your ankles is of importance.Swimming backstroke/ Upbeat (propulsion) The upbeat will begins as your hip begins to lift. Then your upper leg follows the hip and your knee will begin to bend dexter y our knee will bend will be about 90 to 120 degrees. Your lower leg will then press upwards with your shin andand the top of your foot. The pressure at this stage is a combination of upwards and backwards. Now your leg willaccelerate upwards and as you kick your leg to the surface this is when propulsion is achieved. When the toes breakthe surface the upbeat ends. Swimming backstroke/ arm actionWhen swimming backstroke you will find that the arms provide main propulsion. The arm action is continuous and alternating. There are four partsto the arms in backstroke which are the entry, catch, propulsive phase and recovery which I will discuss in moredetail. Swimming backstroke/ Entry When your authorize enters the water your superficial finger enters first keeping it in line with your shoulder. Your palm facing outward and then handshould sink to a depth of about 30 cms causing the minimum amount of drag. pass on sure that your hand does sink a little because it help with your body r oll.Your arm will also be fully extended As your hand will be placed in the water. do sure it is donewithout any undue tension as well as making sure that you do not over reach. It is very important that the arm enters in line with the shoulder. An entry that is too close to the centre line or too wide will have a detrimental effect on your streamlining and propulsion. It is also very importantthat your little finger enters first by entering with the back of the hand will cause more resistance also you will not be able to sink your hand to the desired position as well as a tendency to pull with the little finger leading.Your hand will start to feel the pressure of the water ready for the sweeping and propulsive movement which will follow. Shortly afterwards your hand will be in the catch position. You will then rotate your hand downwards, as you press on the water your elbow will bend and your upper arm will rotate, givingyou a high elbow position that you need to enable the initia l downward sweep to be performed effectively. When learning the backstroke you will find that the arms are the hardest part of the stroke and to develop the correct catch position and the downwards movement to the catch position.But practice makes perfect Swimming backstroke/ Catch Your hand will now begin to give a backwards pressure on the water. This is so that your hand can make a purchase on the water and move your body forwards over the hand. Swimming backstroke/ downsweep Your elbow will now begin to bend and your hand will continue to sweep downwards slightly. As your hand begins the downsweep the pitch of your hand will be downwards as well as backwards. When you have finished the downsweep your elbow will be flexed to 90 degrees your hand will be in line with your shoulder. our elbow at this point will be pointing to the pool bottom and your finger tips should be facing outwards. You will change your hand pitchinto a backwards direction in the innovation period, through t o inwards and upwards, ready to begin your upsweep. Swimming backstroke/ Pitch of the hand It is important to realize that swimming backstroke you will continually alter the pitch of your hand throughout the sweeping actions. So that you get the best possible propulsion during the downsweep your hand should be pitched downwards, outwards, and slightly backwards.Swimming backstroke/ Upsweep Your hand will now sweep upwards towards the surface of the water keeping the elbow bent. The upsweep progresses from your shoulder line through to justabove the waist. It is of importance now that the roll is of commodious importance, to ensure that the sweeping propulsive can be effective. At the endof your upsweep your pitch is now altered to backwards then to downwards and then backwards. Swimming backstroke/ Final Downsweep When your hand sweeps downwards your elbow will straighten.The propulsive phase of the arm stroke is now completed with your arm extended below your hip. When you swim wi th the arms they are likened to a long letter s shape alongside your body in the water. Swimming backstroke/ Recovery Your body will roll after the final downsweep of your hand the recovery action of your arm begins. Your hand on which you are to recover will be below the level of your hip so it needs to be lifted through the water in a way which will cause you the minimum amount of resistance.You can achieve thisby rotating your hand inwards so the palm faces your thigh, your hand will then be able to cut through the water on its side. When you bring it up it should leave the water be thumb first. Once your arms have left the water your arms should come directly over your shoulder being an elevated positiondue to the body roll. When your thumb is your arms is gradually from your shoulder joint to place your hand in a little finger entry position as it passes yourhead on its way down into the water.Make sure your arm is straight as wells relaxed during the recovery giving your arms an opportunity to recovery from thepropulsive phase. Make sure you do not overreach at this time. Swimming backstroke/ arm opposition When swimming backstroke the timing of the recovery and propulsive arm position is very important if you want to swim backstroke with good technique. As your recovering arm enters the water the propulsive arm should be sweeping down at the end of its propulsive phase.The opposition of your arms helps with your body roll and your streamlining and it provides the most continuous application of propulsive force on the water. Swimming backstroke/ breathing When swimming backstroke breathing is not usually any problem because the head is free of the water and does not go into the water at any time. Breathing can take place at anytime during the stroke. Make sure that you take a regular pattern of breathing. The usual pattern of breathing isto take an in breath as one arm recovers and an out breath on the other arm recovery (in on one arm out on the other) .Swimming backstroke/ co-ordination When swimming the backstroke there are two parts to co-ordination the timing the leg action with your arms as well as the arms with eachother. Swimming backstroke/ leg action timing The most common timing used is the six beat leg action this is complete by the time the cycle of the arms is complete. It is important that a strong balancing leg kick is used when swimming backstroke because as I mentioned before the arms are pitched outside the center line and the faster leg kick s used to maintain a streamline and horizontal position preventing lateral deviation (body moving side to side). The six beat action is the most commonly used a small minority of backstroke swimmers will use any other pattern. Swimming backstroke/ arm action timing When swimming backstroke your arms can be seen opposite each other but there is a period in this cycle when both arms are in the water at the same time. This is simply when one arm is moving towards the catch and the other is releasing the water and beginning the recovery.This is a slight converging which ensures that your stroke doeskeep a continuous propulsion from your arms. Swimming backstroke/ faults, causes and corrections When you swim backstroke you will find you may have one or more faults, in this part of my page we will look at thefault that you may come across the reasons why and how you can improve and correct the fault. You may not realize youhave any kind of fault but it may be worth having a read in case you recognize something in your stroke which youmay not have realized is a fault.

Friday, May 24, 2019

Basal Motion

The drift of glaciers, which is essentially the motion of ice down the slopes imputable to gravity, can be due to two mechanisms internal deformation of the ice due to high pressure exerted by the ice layers above and primary(a) sliding of the ice along the domain (Glaciers Overview 3).Basal sliding means that the glaciers move by sliding along the landscape at their base. This happens because when the temperatures are warmer, the bases of the glaciers thaw, which creates a thin water film. This causes the glaciers to parachute along their bases.This face of motion usually happens with temperate glaciers which form at comparatively warmer temperatures. The motion of glaciers due to extremist sliding is faster than those than are frozen at their bases, which can slide only due to internal deformations (Glaciers Overview 3) The fast moving glaciers are categorized into surging glaciers and tidewater glaciers depending on the way they flow. Surging glaciers follow a cycle of high speed ice flow, followed by low speed ice flow. The high speed cycle extends from a month to a duette of years, which the low speed cycle continues till a couple of decades (Background 6).Tidewater glaciers are the glaciers which end in the sea with a grounded ice-cliff from which icebergs are discharged. These mostly occur in the comparatively warmer oceanic regions (Vieli 10) The dynamics of both these types of glaciers is attributed to primary motion. This has been proved by multiple case studies done by scientists on different glaciers of severally type. Some of these are as below 1. Variegated glacier This is a surge type of glacier in Alaska. The study of its dynamics was done by Humphrey and Raymond, who collected the data related to its erosion and sediment deposits.They found that the glacial sliding power per unit bed area was a product of the sliding velocity and the radical shear stress. While this simple formula is still to be found true in case of other glaciers, the relation between the glacial slide and basal motion cannot be ignored n(Hallet & Anderson 6) 2. Trapridge glacier This is again a surge type glacier hardened in Yukon Territory in Canada. The movement of this glacier is also attributed to basal sliding. A study of the glacier shows a thin permeable layer below the glacier (Flowers & Clarke 4). Many look projects were carried out to study the glacier.One of the researchers Clarke in 1976 proposed that the motion of the glacier was due to basal ice sliding, and the idea was further strengthened by Fowler who in 2001 proposed a mathematical formulation based on the same idea (Frappe 9) 3. Hubbard Glacier This is the largest temperate tidewater glacier. It is located in Alaska (Motyka & Truffel 1). The movement of this glacier into the sea has been a part of extensive research studies. A measurement of the surface ice velocity was taken and compared with the ice thickness. The results showed that the motion was due to basal slid ing (Motyka & Truffel 12) 4.Columbia Glacier This is a retreating tidewater type glacier located in south-central costal Alaska. A study of the motion of this glacier showed a large surpass of travel combined with short period speed variations, both of which are characteristic of basal motion. And hence it was concluded that the motion of the glacier is predominantly due to basal sliding (ONeel Pfeffer Krimmel & Meier 4) References ONeel S, Pfeffer W T, Krimmel R, Meier M, Evolving Force Balance at Columbia Glacier Alaska, During its Rapid Retreat, Page Retrieved on twenty-eighth May 2007, http//tintin. colorado. edu/group/capital of South Carolina/Oneelforcebalance. pdfMotyka R J, Truffer M, Hubbard Glacier, Alaska 2002 closure and outburst of Russell Fjord and postflood conditions at Gilbert Point, 14th April 2007, Article retrieved on 28th May 2007, http//www. uas. alaska. edu/envs/publications/pubs/motyka_truffer2007. pdf www. eos. ubc. ca/research/glaciology/research/Theses/T omFrappe(MSc-2006). pdf Freppe-Seneclauze T P, Slow surge of Trapridge Glacier, Yukon Territory 1951-2005, 2002, Article retrieved on 28th May 2007, www. eos. ubc. ca/research/glaciology/research/Theses/TomFrappe(MSc-2006). pdf Flowers G E, Clarke G K C, A multi-component coupled model of glacier hydrologyTheory and synthetic examples 12th November 2002, Article retrieved on 28th May 2007, www. eos. ubc. ca/research/glaciology/research/Publications/Flowers&Clarke(JGR-2002a). pdf Hallet B, Anderson J, Collaborative Research Controls on deposit Yields from Tidewater Glaciers from Patagonia to Antarctica, 2003, Article retrieved on 28th May 2007, http//students. washington. edu/koppes/PatagoniaProposal2003. pdf Vieli A, On the dynamics of Tidewater Glaciers, 2001, Article retrieved on 28th May 2007, http//e-collection. ethbib. ethz. ch/ecol-pool/diss/fulltext/eth14100. pdf Background, Article retrieved on 28th May 2007,

Thursday, May 23, 2019

A Very Filipino Way Of Doing Business Essay

Whe neer I go to the local market with the Asawa, I love to wander around the meat and fish section. I love the despicableness and the flies and the noise and total lack of any lip service being paid to basic hygiene regulations. It is so Philippine I check my Suki for meat and another for chicken and cardinal I go to for fish and seafoods. The Asawa has her own for ve dejectables, fruit and dry goods, spread around the market. A suki, for the uninitiated, is a unconstipated provider of whatever it is you be acquire. I think to be technic eachy correct, you as the guest are actually the suki, but in typically Filipino fashion the word is used in either direction and you call the store you go to regularly your suki We have a suki for bottled water. Our first suki would always crawl in in the morning when we were out, despite having been told numerous times we wouldnt be there to run into the gallons (those large bottles of water usually seen in the office sustain home but commonplace in every home here) until after noon.Their insistence we change our routine to match theirs plus the fact it took six weeks to get them to sell us a table top stand for the bottles meant I spat the dummy one day and found a new suki They know the error of their ways and tried to regain the business but the damage had been done Changing your suki is not something you under collect lightly. The very fabric of commercial orderliness here is built upon the kin between buyer and seller. When you look at any row of Filipino market stalls or shops, you may hear how everybody in a row is selling exactly the comparable thing. The plastic bucket shops are all over there. The hardware stalls are all over there, the next row is all cloth and old clothes. Not hardly are all the stalls for one line of merchandise in a row, they all look identical. Every stall has the analogous goods displayed exactly the same way. As if there is a pattern laid down by law as to how to display those goods Woe betide you if you do it any otherway or set up amongst the wrong stalls.The prevailing soundness appears to be that you increase your chances of making some money if you are where people will go to look for the range of goods you offer. If the hardware stores were to spread themselves around the townsfolk then maybe one of them would wither on the vine as few people might find them. By having all of the hardware stores in the one spot, then it is guaranteed that anyone who needs hardware MUST gothere. Brilliant So why would they shop at this store instead of that one if they all offer the same goods in the same location? The only answer I have ever received for that question has always been the same because you know the store owner, or are a friend or, they are your SUKI Personal relationships are very important to Filipinos and without them your business is pretty well doomed to fail. Once you start buying regularly from one store and they take on Suki status then the suki will lose attend if you are seen purchasing elsewhere in the same market.Other store owners will know your suki is someone else and they will usually refrain from hassling you. Poaching customers has been known to bunk to arguments, fights and even stabbings You should be able to want a discount (walay hang yoo) from your suki. Of course over time the actual discount might decrease as both parties become comfortable with the relationship and outright price is no longer as important as the trust displayed and enjoyed between parties. This is a factor of Filipino business that many foreigners never grasp. They expect a good deal right from the beginning, yet what have they done to deserve that favouritism? Anywhere in Asia there is a homogeneous attitude to time. Time being invested to really get to know each other and develop trust and a rapport that will span generations.It is a long terminal view that we foreigners are coming up against way down the path the other pa rties involved have been traveling for perhaps centuries The term interloper comes to mind and that is what we are in many ways. Break that down to the local food market level of commerce and the relationship may take less time to build but the concept remains the same. If you apply the same mindset to more expensive business ventures here then it is golden to develop guidelines. Firstly, dont expect the best terms right off the bat, give the other guy time to get to know you and like you. Secondly, never show your anger or emotion, it shames you and the other party and achieves nothing worthwhile. Thirdly, if you are beingripped off, dont be in too very much of a hurry to take your business elsewhere. This goes for the meat suki too. I had one who was putting the old thumb on the scales when weighing my beef tenderloin every Thursday.I knew I was being short changed somehow, yet the challenge was how to turn this around to my advantage as I loved my beef and there was only one ot her stall that sold it. My solution was to negotiate an extra piece thrown in after the kilo or two was weighed and agree upon. This let the suki think they were doing me a favour and building rapport while I was actually getting what I was paying for. The end result was they at last caught on and stopped thumbing the scales and I eventually stopped insisting on my extra chunk. They got the message that I knew they were ripping me off, yet nobody lost face and business carried on as usual.In some ways, dealing with your suki is good training for dealing with so much that you will confront in this country. overtaking head to head will only have you losing time after time. You may think you won, you made your point, you showed them but the reality is Filipinos, like most Asians, take the long term view in many things. There is the short term immediate gratification often exploited by the lesser ameliorate and those who figure they will never have to deal with you again but on the w hole the opposite is more often the case. Choose your suki wisely, and then place with them. Work out your differences in ways other than the typical western yelling and posturing and you are sure to come out a winner in the long term.In the commercial context, suki relationships (market- exchange partnerships) may develop between two people who agree to become regular customer and supplier. In the marketplace, Filipinos will regularly buy from certain specific suppliers who will give them, in return, reduced prices, good prime(a), and, often, credit. Suki relationships often apply in other contexts as well. For example, regular presenters of restaurants and small neighborhood retail shops and tailoring shops often receive special treatment in return for their patronage. Suki does more than help develop scotch exchange relationships. Because trust is such a vital tantrum, it creates a platform for personal relationships that can blossom into genuine friendship between individu als. Patron-client bonds also are very much a part of prescribed patterns of appropriate behavior.These may be formedbetween tenant farmers and their landlords or between any patron who provides resources and influence in return for the clients personal services and general support. The reciprocative arrangement typically involves the patron giving a marrow of earning a living or of help, protection, and influence and the client giving labor and personal favors, ranging from household tasks to political support. These relationships often evolve into ritual kinship ties, as the tenant or worker may ask the landlord to be a childs godparent. Similarly, when favors are extended, they tend to bind patron and client unneurotic in a network of mutual obligation or a long-term interdependency.The word suki is a Filipino term which means patriotic customer. This alleged(prenominal) market-exchange partnership can be developed into an agreement where one can be a regular customer and sup plier. Contents hide * 1 Suki system * 2 Customer satisfaction * 3 Returning favors * 4 Reference * 5 Citation -Suki systemThe suki system is a system of patronage in which a customer regularly buys their merchandise from a certain client. In the merchandising business, Filipinos often buy from specific suppliers who will provide their customers reduced prices, good quality and credit as well. These factors are the usual components of becoming a suki. The presence of trust and the development of friendship between the two parties is a vital aspect in the establishment of an economic exchange relationship. In some instances, regular patrons of restaurants, small neighborhood retail shops and tailoring shops receive special treatment in return for their patronage.Customer satisfactionCustomer satisfaction is essential to the survival of any business, small-scale or large-scale and retailers know that satisfied customers are loyal customers. Consequently, retailers develop strategies t o build relationships that result in customers returning to make more purchases. By responding to customer needs, business owners endeavor to meet or exceedcustomer expectations for their product or service. This increases the likelihood of gaining sukis. The quality of after-sales service can also be a crucial factor in influencing any purchasing decision. In the current economic environment, businesses continuously strive not only for customer satisfaction, but for customer delight that extra bit of added value that may lead to increased customer loyalty. Any extra added value, however, will need to be carefully costed.Returning favorsUsually, favors are returned or extended to both patron and clients. For example, this reciprocal arrangement typically involves the patron providing a means of earning a living or help, protection, and influence. The client in turn provides labor and personal favors, ranging from household tasks to political support. These relationships often evolv e into ritual kinship ties, as the tenant or worker may ask the landlord to be a childs godparent. Similarly, when favors are extended, they tend to bind patron and client together in a network of mutual obligation or a long-term interdependency.

Wednesday, May 22, 2019

Political Parties in Nigeria Essay

Democracy no dubiety is the worlds current new bride. To the effect that every 1 Politicians, ledgerists, statesmen and even laymen c all themselves democrats while those who wish to defend a regime no matter its nature call it nation (Williams 199565), one could aptly assign the world is in the age of democracy. But as democracy is gaining currency the world everyplace, it need be stated that the Institution of governmental society constitutes the lube of the current egalitarian wave. This is because, governmental parties answers as vehicle for expressing infinite of world views held by citizens as well as an instrument to garnering the informed and active interest of the citizens in the governmental extremity which constitutes the hallmark of both pop practice. As noned by Hague and Harrop (1987141-142), troupe competition is the hallmark of liberal democracy because it is the cunning which makes governments responsive to the electorates by providing voters wit h some choice while simultaneously restricting that choice to a few broad alternatives. In some other(a) words, the greater the assignment number of parties and / or the latitude of freedom, the more antiauthoritarian the semi policy-making system is or spend verbotens while the the more they argon conscripted, the lesser the likelihood of a elective policy-making system.This view was in like manner sh atomic number 18d by Anifowoshe (2004 59) when he noned that the condition of the semipolitical parties in a political system is the trump out possible test of the nature of any democratic regime. It must however be stated that while parties constitute the piston in the engine of democracy, the nature and activities of political parties themselves whitethorn constitute a stumbling block in the way of democratic growth and livelihood. This has been the paradox of political society politics in Africa where the institution has remained largely underdeveloped. Instanc es abound where activities of parties permit been a major concomitantor in the decline of democratic politics or outright termination of democratic presidentships and their subsequent replacement by array authoritarian regimes. In this context, the Nigerian state is a reference point.Nigeria became independent in 1960 later years of colonial rule. Independence ushered in a multi company democracy under a Westminster parliamentary model. However, due to a number of circumstances including intra and inter fellowship bickering and, political excesses of parties and their leaders among others, the offset democratic republic was telescoped in January 1966 follo allureg a bloody coup detat championed by the five Majors. The abrupt termination of the first republic too ushered in a thirteen-year long forces rule that lasted till October 1, 1979. Nigeria had other taste of multiparty democracy between October 1979 and 31st December 1983. However, like al approximately of the pa rties of this check themselves, the problems of the first republic reincarnated to mare the democratic processes, culminating in the military coup of December 31st 1983 and the swallowning of a second phase of military rule in the country.Indeed, the second phase of military rule in Nigeria which lasted between December 1983 and May 29, 1999 was the most dramatic and traumatic in the history of the country. It was a period mostly characterized by series of coups and counter coups, political maneuverings and above all, endless transition to civil rule programmes or what Diamond et al (1997) has aptly dubbed enactment without End. But while the political imbroglio of that period can non be blamed out-rightly on the excesses of political parties and their leaders, the need to avert such was always in advance(p) as a defensive mechanism for continuous tinkering with the then transition process. For instance, reasons for dissolution of the 13 political associations that first prelu de the third republic and their incident replacement by government created SDP and NRC and, annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential election that lastly calumniated in the abortion of the third republic were carefully crafted under the need to avoid repeat of mistakes of the past republics. Detai lead work on this has been done by scholars and need not be recounted here (See, Diamond et al 1997).However, what must be stressed here is that, Nigerias current democratic experience was the end product of a long and tortuous journey by means of the woods of military autocracy. Although the decade of the 90s generally was characterized by external pressures for democratization around the world, the resilience and perceptions (rightly or wrongly) by Nigerians that democracy holds prospect for a break up life was also a major cipher that sustained the struggle. Also, perhaps, in acknowledgment of the sanctity of the party institution to democratic sustenance, the country has continu ed to unravel a growing multiparty democracy since 1999.Thus, from three parties in 1999, it currently has over xxx political parties with prospects of more to be registered. Against this long background, this paper seeks to examine the habit of parties in sustaining Nigerias democracy. Further to this are To what tip do Nigerian political parties conform to their judge part in the political system or in sustaining democracy? What are the encumbrances (if any) on their performance in Nigeria? What is / are to be done to place Nigerian political parties on the part of ring vis--vis democratic sustenance? Unraveling these problematic calls for rigorous inquiry. But to start with, situating the role of parties in a universal context is essential.Political Parties and Democracy Theoretical mannequinPolitical party is one of the genuses of intermediary groups in a political system. Others take interest groups and pressure groups. Thus, the dealinghip between vi competent politi cal party and democratic governance is no doubt axiomatic. Political parties are the lubricant of democracy and without which, democracy musical themed on the western model cannot function (Adele 200135). This is basically because it give ups a credible means of harnessing the variety of public opinions essential in sustaining a democratic society. While democracy rests on the informed and active liaison of the people, political party is a vi able tool in this regard. This perspective is shared by political scientists. As Anifowoshe (200459) remarked Democracy experiences where the principal leaders of a political system are selected by war-ridden elections in which the bulk of the population ache the opportunity to participate. As a matter of fact, the condition of the parties, in a political system, is the best possible evidence of the nature of any democratic regime.Implicit in the above statement is that a partys direct of institutionalization, cohesion and favorable ba se, even ups the limit of its viability and the extent to which it could be said to be performing its functions in a democracy. In other words, viable political parties contribute to democratic growth much as unviable ones may terminus in democratic regression. Although there are myriad of definitions on what constitutes a political party, yet they all revolve around electioneering and the control of government. For instance, political parties has been conceived as an instrument for contesting elections for the purpose of selecting candidates and party(ies) to exercise political major power (Yaqub 2002122). This definition is in consonance with that which sees political party as an organization, which is principally, absolutely and actively involved, in the electoral process, in a democracy, with the major intent of winning political power and controlling the government (Onuoha 2003137). The import of these definitions is that the major goal of political party is to hold and control governmental powers. This it does through participation in electoral process in which it fields candidates to contest for various posts. Yet, it must be stated that while the major goal of a political party is to capture and throw control over personnel and policies of government, such at times may beat to be done in coalition with other party(ies).This is in particular the chance where electoral victory is not based on first past the post system or where a single party could not win the minimum electoral seats necessary for it to constitute a government. However, beyond fielding candidates for elections and controlling governmental apparatuses, political parties also perform other functions which on the one hand set them aside from other organizations such as interest groups and more importantly on the other hand, makes them sine qua non for democratic development. These take on the task of political recruitment and training, education, culture, breeding consensus, pr oviding alternative world views and political communication among others (see Okoosi-simbine 200485-86 Yaqub 2002112 Aina 200210-12, Onuoha 2003137). It is the extent to which parties are able to discharge these functions that determine the extent of democratic growth in the country. Important in carrying out the above functions is that parties especially in culturally variegated societies such as Nigeria must eschew those interact variables that are likely to mar programmes and policies of the party such as salience of ethnic, religious or other sectional interests.Where this is not avoided, the head for the hillsency is that a party will find it considerably difficult in harnessing or mobilizing mass support for democratic growth. The emphasis here is that parties are formed not further when to promote policies but also to reliable social interests. It therefore follows that parties must bewilder broad social bases in order to be able to add up interests rather than articul ation of specific sectional ones. Also central to democratic growth through the party system is party institutionalization. That is, the process by which parties become established and acquires value and enduring stability (Huttington, 1965394). Although the extent of party institutionalization varies with party systems the world over, it is usually measured based on some factors such as party age, count of splits and mergers, electoral stability, legislative stability and leadership change (Janda, 1993167). Of equal importance is party coherence, which has been defined as the degree of congruence in the attitudes and behaviour of party members (Janda 1980118 1993173).There is no gainsaying the fact that the degree of coherence among party members bears direct relevance to party strength and stability. This is because a strong and rational party in terms of membership and structure is usually stronger and coordinated both in articulating view and garnering electoral support than ar e fragmented one. It is also the factor of coherence that enable parties to effectively discharge the function of National integration which they are expected to perform especially in plural societies. It must be stressed that, while parties in the ripe countries of Europe and America, are discovered to have attained the status exposit above, those in the developing countries tend to be a little far from it.In other words, political parties in the developing countries cannot be ranked on equal scale with those of the advanced countries in terms of viability of the institution. Hence, it could be reasoned that the difference between the two worlds accounts for the different levels of democratic growth between them (e.g. Nigeria and USA). Although Nigeria has returned to democratic practice since 1999, yet there is a growing uphold over the sustenance of its democracy. These concerns obviously owe their origin to the nature of political parties and party politics or activities in the country. Issues border this dilemma are examined next but before this, description of the character and general tendencies of current political parties is essential.Roles and Functions of Political PartiesFrom various literature on political party, it is evident that democracy, especially the liberal majoritarian version would be practically impossible without the institution of political party. This no doubt is anchored on the expected roles of political parties in deepening the democratic process. One major role expected of any political party is the task of political recruitment and education. The centrality of this function lie is the fact that it is directly connected with fulfillment of the common aim of all parties. That is, the aim of fielding candidates for election and capturing or exercising political power either independently or in cooperation with other parties (see, Yaqub 2002164 Ball 198873). In other words, in the process of trying to capture political power, political parties serves as a major instrument/ curriculum through which candidates for public offices are recruited at all levels. This is the case in both socialist as well as competitive liberal democracies.According to Ball (19877), in such political systems where parties are absent (such as in zero party situation) or weak, political elites are usually recruited from traditional elites or through religious and military organizations. However, such sources of recruitment usually have implications for stability of the regime because they lack the more habitual base of political parties. In other words, the institution of political party provides an avenue for recruiting politically ambitious persons into the political elite class. In this, we can also accommodate parties role as a credible means of political succession. This is because parties would have narrowed down the number of competitors for a particular office to what it considered the best choice at the material time. Th is process help reduce pressures on the political system as well as streamline citizens choice. In addition, in the process of campaigns for elections, parties inform and educate the public on important state policies and actions much as they do while in power. Even for parties out of power, they provide a constant source of critique of government policies which attimes help to change, modify or improve the quality of policies and programmes.Related to the task of recruitment and education is the role of parties as socializing agents. usually speaking, most conceptions of socialization agreed that it is a process by which individual(a)s incorporate into their own attitudinal and behavioural patterns, the way of their respective social groups and society (Babawale, 1999218). If this is true, it follows that in the course of preparing candidates for elections, campaigns and other political activities, the individual at bottom the society is acquiring some attitudinal or behavioural patterns necessary to make a politically vibrant individual. In addition, knowledge about political institutions and processes are acquired and inbredized by the individual. Perhaps, this informed why political socialization have been conceived as all titular and informal explicitly or nominal political learning at every stage of the life circle that affects political behaviour, such as learning of politically relevant social attitudes and the acquisition of politically relevant personality characteristics (Greenstein, quoted in Babawale 1999219).Another major role of political parties in any political system is in the area of inspection and repair as link between rulers and the ruled through what is known as political communication. That is, parties provide a means of expression and information flow, both upwardly and downward, in any political system. Although, the flow of information is crucial to the survival of any political system, the vigilance of information flow howev er varies. For instance, in a liberalized multiparty system, there is temperament for information flow to be tilted more in favour of upward flow. This would allow the ruling party to feel the pulse of the populace as well as respond positively to policy demands.But even for parties out of power, it has a tendency to reinforce collective consciousness of party members and tone the level of attachment to the party. On the other hand, where there is a single party, the tendency is that information flow will be more from the top to the bottom. For instance, Hague and Harrop (1987 140) had noted that in Stalins Russia, the democratic expression of opinion from the grassroots of the Communist troupe was negligible compared with the centralist flow of directive from the top. This notwithstanding, what is important is that, irrespective of the strength or direction of information flow, political parties have the onerous role of serving as a two-way communication process between the gov ernment and the people.The formulation and implementation of collective goals is yet another major function of parties. This is because in the process of seeking to capture power, they formulate programmes and policies either through conventions, meetings and even manifestoes which they hope to implement while in office. Some of these issues eventually constitute the collective goals of the society. Related to this is the mobilization role of parties. Indeed, parties are known to have been in the vanguard of mobilizing the citizens.This they do through mass rallies and other forms of display of unity that emphasizes identification between the individual and the party. Hague and Harrop (1987140) noted that, parties have been the apex movers in the revolutionary upheaval of the modern age. They alluded that the enormous transformations of Russia and Chinese societies in the last century were led by vanguard communist parties committed to radical social changes. So also were the natio nalist parties of the third world who played critical role in the attainment of independence and the subsequent attempt to weld new nations out of traditional societies (Hague and Harrop 1987140-141).In the process of developing collective goals, parties also serve as important agents of articulating and aggregating the myriad of groups and individual interests in the society. Although this is not an exclusive function of political parties as it is also performed by interest groups, but parties are able to do this on a wider and / or national scale. Indeed, all parties have social base that cuts across ethnic, religious, occupational and class divides. It thus serves as a platform through which the diverse interest base are articulated and aggregated to form coherent whole. The underlying assumption here is that parties are able to synthesize and reconcile the multitude of competing interests into a broad national value. It must however be stated that this function of political part ies, though important, need not be stressed too far. This is because, most often, parties mainly respond to interests and demands that are consistent with their ideology or in line with controlling interests in the party. In this context, parties are important agencies in determining which interests are represented in politics and which ones are left out.From discussions so far, it is apparent that the relationship between political parties and democratic sustenance is axiomatic. Indeed, the various roles performed by political parties in the political system are expected to strengthen the democratic processes. This demand also implies that political parties and political leaders must in themselves be democratic. What this translates to is that the extent to which individuals within the party and the party organization itself assimilate democratic tenets to a large extent affects the extent to which they are able to discharge the above roles as well as the quality of democratic grow th in the political system. In other words, having democrats is precondition for democracy to take root. How these intricacies of party politics and democratic sustenance have played themselves out in Nigeria will be our next counsel after a preview of political parties in the countrys current fourth republic.Parties in Nigerias Fourth RepublicPolitical parties in Nigerias fourth republic emerged against the background of a military managed transition prograamme which began in 1998 and reached its climax on May 29, 1999 when a new civilian administration was ushered in (see Momoh and Thoeveni 2001). Before this experience, Nigeria has had previous democratic republics between 1st October 1960 when it gained political independence from Britain and January 1966 when it was rudely terminated in a military coup another one was between October 1, 1979 and December 31, 1983 while a third one was not allowed to take root in the early 1990s because it was eventually truncated by its own ar chitect. What is remarkable about all the republics is that, with the exception of the aborted third republic which had only two parties dejure, all others were characterized by multiparty system. Extensive work on previous republics have been done by Coleman (1971) Joseph 1991 Diamond et al 1997 Ujo 2000 and Yaqub 2002).To begin with, parties in Nigerias current fourth republic have been characterized by what could be described as a seesaw numerical transition. This was because, at inception of political activities in 1998, several political associations were registered (though provisionally) as political parties but was subsequently prone down to three before the 1999 elections and by 2003, several others came back on the stage. This numerical transition deserves extensive comment.Upon commencement of political activities in 1998, cultivation to fifty political associations sprang up but at the close of nominations, only twenty-four of them had applied for registration with INEC . After thorough scrutiny, only nine of these parties were formally registered (provisional) by INEC according to its guidelines. These are Alliance for Democracy (AD), All Peoples Party (ANPP), popular Alliance Movement (DAM), Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), Peoples Redemption Party (PRP), unify Democratic Party (UDP), United Peoples Party (UPP) and Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ). However, the future and continuous existence of these parties was tied to passing the acid test. To continue to exist and function as a political party, a parting was expected to score at least, a minimum of five (initially ten) percent of the total votes in at least 24 states of the federation during the December 1998 local governments elections.Thus, of the nine parties, only the APP and PDP clearly met the criteria having scored at least five percent in over 24 states of the federation each. The AD was third with 5 percent of votes in 14 states of the federation. However, in addition to the APP and PDP, the AD was also registered partly to assuage the entropy westerners who were still aggrieved by the June 12, 1993 election imbroglio and most importantly, because of provisions of the electoral laws that the third best party would also be registered in the event of only two parties meeting the recruitments. Consequently, based on the modified criterion, the AD, APP and PDP were registered to contest the 1999 general elections.Following increasing pressures for registration of more parties, three other associations, All Progressives metre Alliance (APGA), National Democratic Party (NDP) and United Nigeria Peoples Party (UNPP), were registered in June 2002 out of over twenty that applied for registration. The registration of these three parties however heightened agitations by those yet to be registered until they were finally registered later in the year. Those factors that made their registration inevitable included subtle blackmail by other associations seeking regis tration, airiness and growing intra party deputes among existing parties and above all, the resort to litigation by those not registered among others (see, Anifowoshe 2004 63) Added to this was increasing factionalisation of existing parties. Indeed, the ruling by the Federal Appeal mash in Abuja, FCT, which favoured the registration of more parties, was a major and perhaps most significant factor that prompted registration of more parties by INEC to the extent that about thirty political parties freely contested the 2003 general elections.It must be stated that, although thirty political parties contested the 2003 general elections, the trio of PDP, ANPP and AD have remained controlling since 1999. While the PPD is currently controlling 27 states (previously 28 before the court order that awarded victory of Anambra state governorship election to the APGA candidate earlier this year), the ANPP has seven states and AD, one state. They all however, have their men in the national pa rliament, though with varying strength.Also, there has been a growing rate of factionalization, crises of succession and internal bickering within the parties. This is with the consequence that more parties and political association have continued to emerge from them to the extent that Nigeria is currently having about 37 political parties with prospects of more to come. The new bride of parties include the ACD, MRDD, Action Alliance For instance, the rate of factionalization within the ruling PDP have gone to an extent that several factions have emerged as new parties on their own. This was the case with the MRDD spearheaded by a former national chairman and other prominent members of the party.The same account could be read for the recently formed ACD which from all indications is spearheade by imcubent transgression President Atiku Abubakar. Indeed, the PDP is not alone in the troubled waters of dissent. Even notable members of the AD and ANPP are now either full members of one of the impertinently registered parties or fraternizing with the designing of becoming one. This was the case with the incumbent protem National Publicity Secretary of ACD, Lai Mohammed, who was hitherto a strong member of the AD.Indeed, in the build up to 2007 general elections, there seem to be general disarray among political parties in the country. While new parties have emerged after 2003 general elections, there is cypher to suggest that more will not arising up before the next 2007 elections. But if the deepening or defense of democracy is a prime factor which politicians have always adduced for the come upment and realignment of forces leading to formation of new parties, to what extent have Nigerian political parties with its increasing numbers satisfied this goal? Or better still to what extent have they fulfilled the expected roles of parties in a democracy necessary for deepening the process? This is our prime concern in the next section.Nigerian Parties and Democ ratic ConsolidationPerhaps a good way to access the impact of parties on democratic sustenance is to align our thought in this direction with the expected roles of parties in a democracy. Indeed, Nigerian parties by whatever angle they are looked at are political parties decently so called. At least, to the extent that the common aim, as parties elsewhere, is to capture political power and control machineries of government. By implication therefore, they are practically veritable instruments in the recruitment of political leaders and political elites. In fact, viewed against previous experiences, one would observe an increasing sensitization and political education of Nigerians.However, one must be cautious in stressing this argument too far giving the contradictions inherent in the ways and practices of the parties. This is because, at the facial level, parties may have been recruiting candidates for various nonappointive posts, but beneath we may ask what is the quality of cand idates being recreated? Are the parties democratic in their recruitment process? Obviously, answers to these questions are negative. To anchor this further, we may begin on the premise that to have (or sustain) democracy, first, there must be democrats either as individuals or party organizations.It is obvious that at inception of the current democratic administration in 1999,and with exception of the PDP then which had a consensus candidate in Chief Olusegun Obasonjo, all other two parties were not particularly democratic in selecting their presidential aspirants. For instance, the decision of the A D under the influence of Afenifere, a pan Yoruba socio-cultural organization to select chief Olu Falae as the partys presidential flagbearer at a meeting held in Ibadan by party elders without allowing proper democratic contest between him and Chief Bola Ige cannot be described as democratic. In fact, the undemocratic nature of what is now the De Rovans Hotel episode has been adjudged a s a major factor in the crises that has been rocking the party since 1999 (see National Interest June 18 200618).So also was the case with the APP between Dr. Olushol Saraki and . The later was eventually selected in a rather spurious manner. Expectedly this action stired controversy within the parties leading to factionalization in the case of the AD and protest votes against the party by Dr Saraki and his supporters in the APP in the 1999 presidential elections. In addition, many of the three parties aspirants for other posts were either hand picked or selected in a surreptitious arrangement.Indeed preparations for the 2003 elections witnessed an almost complete disregard of democratic tenets in the process of recruiting candidates for elective offices. Although many of the parties attempted to pick their aspirants, especially presidential nominees, through national conventions, but unfolding events and protests by other aspirants after the conventions smacks of fluidity of the pr ocess. The implications of all the above is the increasing factionalization of the parties and rising level of intra party crises. Worrisome as these situations appear, there is nothing yet to suggest advances in democratic direction by the parties even for the 2007 elections. The recent convention of the PDP in which it was dogged (or maneuvered) against the wishes of some other members that its candidates for elections will be by affirmation is a pointer in this direction. Also is the case of the NDP which has already adopted a candidate, Rtd.General Babangida, as its presidential flag bearer for the 2007 election without holding a convention. What we can derive from the above analysis are two fold. First is that a faulty premise cannot produce a sound conclusion. A party whose internal machinery is undemocratic cannot nurture democracy in a larger social context. Second is that the candidates so recruited have not gone through any democratic training within the party nor tested democratically to ascertain their level of subscription to democratic tenets. In this case, such candidates while in office will likely be intolerant to opposition and above all, perpetuated through undemocratic tendencies. authoritative unfolding occurrences in the country manifesting in succession crises, third term agenda etc. tend to confirm all the above assertions. In other words, the bottom line remains that, neither Nigerian political parties nor politicians could be regarded as democrats thus cannot effectively and sufficiently contribute to maintaining the system.In terms of political communication and serving as link between the government and the people, Nigerian parties grossly parade a deficit balance in this regard. This is because none of the parties has a functional formal communication channel. The reality is that most of the parties structures especially at the grassroots are only vibrant at the approach of elections. After this, they glide by away while the pa rty continue to exist only at National and state headquarters. Indeed, the critical ingredients and means of political communication necessary for a vibrant democracy are conspicuously absent in the parties. These include avenues for expression of opinions by citizens, free information flow (upward or downward) among others. These elements help strengthen attachment and loyalty to the party thereby holding prospect for increased political participation. However, Nigerian parties are not forthcoming in this regard. What is apparent is that relations within the parties are more of client-patronage relation.Party leaders and elected officers most often become alienated from other party members and even the electorates immediately after election. For the parties in power, the only relation that there from exist between party elites and other members usually is occasional distribution of patronage in order to concern members support and loyalty while those out of power fizzled away only to re emerge at the approach of another election. For this reasons, harnessing citizens initiative or sustaining a vibrant political participation of members becomes difficult with the result of docility in party activities. Indeed, communication is the life wire of any organization the lack of which may result in the organizations eventual death. The party organization and indeed the political system is no exemption in this regard. Perhaps, we can make bold to say that the come along zero communication level of Nigerian political parties is a major factor in their inability to institutionalize or function effectively as lubricant of the democratic project.As already noted in this text, parties also play mobilization roles as well as articulate and aggregate the myriad of opinions held by individual and groups within the society. This no doubt facilitates development of collective goals. A careful observation of the Nigerian experience however reveal parties as playing contradicto ry roles to the above. First, mobilization of citizens has often been limited to periods of electoral campaigns. For Nigerian parties and politicians, election periods are periods to galvanize the people and exhume powerful oratory remarks. The fair politician is always willing to visit the nooks and crannies to mobilize and solicit support for the party and candidates. But while this is part of the mobilization function of parties, it need not be confirmed solely to an election period routine.Rather, it is a process that must continue in order to bring out the best from the citizens in terms of input into policies and programmes of the government. But given the psyche of the Nigerian politician and their end-means orientation of politics which is to acquire political power in order to secure economic resources, citizen contribution / input into policies and programmes is of inconsequential effect. This crave for economic security at whatever cost by the political elites could ther efore be adduced as a contributing factor to continued non alignment of policies with realities confronting the Nigerian electorates.Another dimension of the faulty mobilization function of parties in Nigeria is that even where they, as elsewhere, have wider social base of support, political maneuverings often create a situation whereby parties resort to politics of ethnic and/or religious mobilization. Indeed, mobilization politics along the lines of ethnic, religious or some other forms of cleavages have been a major character of party politics since independence. For instance most parties of the first republic apply divisive mobilization politics to garner electoral support. So also were parties of the second republic. With the exception of AD which is rooted in the south west and maintains family relationship with Afenifere, a socio cultural organization in the region, all other parties of the current era could not be said to have their support base dependent to a particular region.However, in the process of electioneering campaigns, many members wittingly or unwittingly often whip ethno-religious sentiments as strategies to mobilize support. Consequently in the prelude to the 2003 general elections, the mood of many Nigerians was that, Religion will play a prominent role in their choice of leaders. Muslim- Christian ambition was so intense that none of the 30 political parties in the country has managed to develop a firmly national support base. Muslims consider Obasanjos ruling peoples Democratic Party (PDP) as a Christian party. The all Nigerian peoples party (ANPP) of his nearest rival, Muhammad Buhari is considered by Christians to be a Muslim party (Marahatha Christian Journal, 2003).The emphasis therefore is that, where mobilization is carried on, on a faulty premise, it becomes extremely difficult to articulate and aggregate programmes and policies that serves the national interest. In this context, programmes and policies often articulated are those that are in consistent with that of the dominant interests within the party, be it socio, cultural or economic.In terms of political socialization, it may be argued that there is a tendency for negative socialization among Nigerian political parties. Socialization, conceived in terms of the process by which the individuals incorporate the ways of their respective social groups and society into their individual patterns and behaviour, is expected to be facilitated by political parties through campaigns, rallies and other political activities. In Nigeria, however, this has a negative content arising from series of violence and atmosphere of hazard that often mare electoral processes in Nigeria. Nigerian parties and politician alike have a penchant for recruiting and making use of political thugs mostly recruited among beat back garage boys, unemployed Youths and even Students at moments of campaigns and elections. Such behaviours and orientations which are antithetical to civ ic culture obviously are imbibed by younger generations.The consequence is that this erodes democratic senses of bargaining and compromise and instead creates the impression that force and crude militancy are the best ways to live and achieve political goals. The negative impacts of the socialization process is already being exhibited at other levels of politics below the state such unionism, especially student unionism. Indeed, student unionism at the tertiary level is expected to evince civic and enlightened qualities by virtue of the place of tertiary institutions in the country. However, a common observable trend in most tertiary institutions in Nigeria is that campus politics has often time been characterized by intolerance, maneuverings, money politics and a host of other negative traits exhibited by Nigerian political parties to the extent that institutions authorities may at times impose sanctions or outright ban on campus political activities. Situations like this no doubt have implications for their future political engagements and by extension, democratic growth in Nigeria.Our endeavour so for has been to trace whether there is an alignment between the expected roles and functions of political parties in sustaining democratic process and the activities of political parties in Nigeria. For one, while the role of parties in democratic sustenance is in controvertible, the Nigerian political parties have not been seen playing these roles. Why is this so is our focus next. Observed Weaknesses of parties in NigeriaFrom discussions so far, it can be gleaned that the indispensability of political parties to democratic sustenance is not in doubt. What is perhaps worrisome is the ability of Nigerian political parties to function effectively as catalyst for democratic growth. Gleaned from a number of observable trends, some factors serve to explain this unfortunate mess. First we may note ideological emptiness of the parties. Conceived as a set of coherent id eas which guide and tailor behaviour, ideology is expected to fire and sustain inspirations of party members. According to Scruton (quoted in Okoosi-Simbine, 200524), parties ideology are moral systems that enshrine the sanctity of contract and promise between them and the electorate because they constitute the political doctrine from which a programme of political action emanates and upon which basis citizens choose how they will like to be ruled. Essentially therefore, parties as organizations with diverse social base must be bounded by such set of common beliefs and ideas in order to help propel a vibrant democratic society.Unfortunately, Nigerian parties and politicians are merely playing survival game. Prime to them from observable trend is the desire to capture and maintain political power irrespective of what this takes. Consequently, this drive to capture power by all means possible tends to erode the performance of other functions necessary for democratic growth. The lack o f ideology also serves as conduit for series of political vagrancies that characterized the political terrain. As observed by Aina (200219), Nigerian poiticians behave like political bats, changing affiliation in response to perceived fortunes or electoral advantage. Akin to the issue of ideology is what we may refer to as poorly digested manifesto of the parties. The manifesto is basis upon which contract between the rulers and citizens are pixilated because it is the representation and/or expression of the political partys direction, purpose and how it hopes to achieve them while in government (Onuoha 2003141).It is the partys statement of intention about how it hopes to achieve good governance. It is therefore the basis upon which performance of an incumbent government can be assessed and balanced against the need for change. Unfortunately, manifestoes of Nigerian political parties have proved to be manifestations of emptiness, similar in content and providing no choice for the citizens. The only difference between them as observed by Okoosi-Simbine (200522) is the emphasis they give to the programmes articulated or in a few cases, the strategies for carrying out the objectives. In other words, their manifestoes are more a replica of the other. Again, this close similarity in manifestoes can be hinged on their inability to develop a coherent ideology. As onu0oha (2003145) rightly observed, any meaningful and functional manifesto must spring from a profound party ideology. Thus, a manifesto without a party ideology is like a body without a soul. In this context, rather than be democracy, parties constitute more of a burden on democratic practice. Prevalence of primordial sentiment may equaled be adduced as responsible for the inability of Nigerian parties to respond positively to the challenges of democratic sustenance.Indeed, the ability of a party to effectively perform its role especially in multi cultural settings is usually circumscribed by the socio- economic structure of the society. Therefore, since parties are institutions competing for spheres of influence in the socio-economic and political configuration of the society, there is every tendency that there activities will be likely be intertwined with paramount socio-political sentiments of the society (Suleiman and Muhammad 2006). This is suggestive of current Nigerian parties. Indeed, post independent Nigeria has witnessed partys base being deeply rooted in ethno-regional and religious sentiments to the extent that the major parties of the first republic (AG, NPC and NCNC) and their second republic successors (especially NPN, NPP and UPN) are often regarded as ethnic pressure groups. While parties of the current fourth republic may not be so deeply rooted in a particular region, nonetheless, the continuous use, overtly or covertly, of ethnic and religious sentiments in party politics reinforces social divisions among the populace which in turn weakens party structure and o rganization.Needless to stress that, a weak party in terms of internal structure cannot function optimally in deepening the democratic process. We can also speak of poor financial standing of the parties which made them susceptible to commandeer by money barons who eventually use them to achieve personal benefits. Politics generally is an expensive activity and the role of money in contemporary Nigerian politics is indeed overwhelming. Although the government, through INEC, is currently financing the parties, but considering the spending pattern of the parties, government finance is generally considered insufficient. Consequently, additional funds are sourced through party financiers that include influential business men, party members in government and so on. For instance, the Plateau state governor, Joshua Dariye, sometime ago claimed he gave the PDP part of the 1.6 million naira ecological fund he was accused of mismanaging. Similarly, only recently the ANPP caretaker committee chairman and governor of Bornu state directed all the seven governors on the platform of the party to contribute 20 million Naira each to the partys purse within two weeks while all presidential aspirants and senators were to contribute 10 million Naira each towards the administration of the party (The Punch Editorial, June, 200616).The implication of this is that Nigerian parties will likely for long be hijacked by money barons who will eventually constitute godfathers within the parties. Second is that credible aspirants who cannot afford to pay the huge sums would have to forget or submerge it while thirdly, internal party democracy becomes jeopardized. The resulting effect of all these is that parties becomes constrained as popular organizations capable of being the vanguard of democratic growth. Rather, they become characterized by frequent conflict and internal party squabbles. Also as a fall out of the above circumstances, programmes and policies that are often articulated a nd implemented reflect more of the interests of the so-called godfathers rather than that of the formal party organization. Thus, as the International IDEA (20068) have noted, given this context, Nigerian party life is characterized by a very low level of regard on policy options. Another observed weakness of Nigerian political parties is the absence of political education. It is a common fact that Nigerian political parties have not been carrying out programmes aimed at enlightening the populace and even party members.This is because the party organization has been confined to mere instrument of contesting elections. Thus after elections, most of the parties become docile both in terms of recruiting new members and organizing activities to enlighten citizens about the political process. According to the country report on Nigeria by the external IDEA (20068), all the parties surveyed do agree that their members are active only during elections. The import of this is that once elect ions are over, only very few things link the party with its members thus, the expected role of political communication and education wanes out. We may also note the long years of military rule as another factor for the nonperformance of Nigerian political parties. Indeed, Nigerias long reign of military rule from 1966 to 1999, except for the brief period of 1979 to 1983, have affected the psyche of the sightly Nigerian politician. Military rule as it were is undemocratic.But its long reign in Nigeria with all its undemocratic tendencies have walked its way into the subliminal consciousness of most Nigerian. Thus, even though the military is out of power and democracy in place, the legacy of authoritarian tendencies still permeates the orientations and behaviours of the political class. The implications of this are that Nigeria currently has a improvident supply of tested democrats while democratic institutions remain large underdeveloped. In other words, while the success of any d emocratic experiment is predicated on the approachability of individuals who are democrats in themselves, Nigerias long years of military tutelage has done no less than wipe out the last vestiges of democratic qualities among Nigerian politicians.ConclusionSo far in this work we have tried to examine the link between political parties and democratic sustenance in Nigeria. It is observed that the institution of political party is indispensable if democracy is to be strengthened. This is by virtue of the various functions they perform which transcend the mere activity of fielding candidates for elections. However, the Nigerian situation is observed to be a deviation from the norm. if anything, Nigerian parties have not only failed in discharging these roles, but are equally working in the direction of democratic regression.In the main, the poor financial base of these parties, lacks of institutionalization, empty ideological content among others are part of their major constraints. A gainst this background, it is suggested that the government should improve on its funding of these parties in order to avoid their hijack by selfish money barons. Equally, the INEC should put in place mechanisms that would ensure these parties are internally democratic. infixed democracy of the parties no doubt will magnify into useful premise for democracy to thrive in the larger Nigerian society. Above all, there must be the political will by politicians themselves to allow democratic tenets to take root in the country. 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